Filaments and health: what the studies say

A cautious, sourced summary of emissions measured during FDM printing. It is not a medical ranking and gives no scores: the public data available do not allow it.

Sources last checked: October 2026.

How to read the table

Green: lower emissions in the compared tests. Red: higher emissions or substances classed as probably carcinogenic. Yellow: mixed results. Grey: not enough data. Colour compares materials with each other and does not mean no risk.

Material	Substances reported	Ultrafine particles	VOCs	Quick read	Sources
PLA	Lactide; in some tests also acetaldehyde, formaldehyde and methyl methacrylate	Lower than ABS in tests	Lower than ABS and nylon	Lower emissions in tests	[1], [2], [3]
PETG	Acetaldehyde (main VOC in the 2022 study)	Among the lowest values (PETG-based filament)	Lowest of ABS, ASA, nylon and PETG in the study	Lower emissions in tests	[4], [5]
ABS	Styrene, ethylbenzene	Higher than PLA and nylon	High: styrene from ~10 to ~110 µg/min in tests	Higher emissions; styrene = IARC group 2A	[1], [2], [6]
ASA	Styrene; profile similar to ABS	Highest of eight filaments in one study	Similar to ABS	Higher emissions; not a “low-emission” material	[4], [5]
Nylon (PA6, PA12)	Caprolactam (up to ~180 µg/min in one test)	Lower than ABS in one test	Very variable between spools: the highest emitter in one study was a nylon, another spool was far lower	Mixed results; another study did not confirm caprolactam	[1], [2], [3], [5]
PC, PC-ABS, TPU, CF/GF, PA-CF	Not enough data in this check	—	—	See the manufacturer’s safety data sheet (SDS)	—

What the research says, in short

Every printer tested in a UL and Georgia Tech study emitted ultrafine particles; about 70% were under 50 nm [2].
Nozzle temperature had the largest effect on particle and VOC emissions [2].
Styrene (ABS, HIPS and, in one study, ASA) is classed by IARC as probably carcinogenic to humans (group 2A), based on occupational exposure and animal studies [6]. A home printer’s emissions aren’t comparable to industrial exposure, but should still be reduced.
Acetaldehyde and formaldehyde were detected from all filaments in one UL study [2].
On average the VOC emissions of the tested 3D printers were lower than those of laser printers and copiers, but some filaments (ABS, nylon) had high values [3].

How to reduce exposure

Ventilate the room or use an enclosure with a filter.
Print at the maker’s recommended temperature, without overheating [2][8].
Don’t keep the printer where you sleep or spend many hours.
Don’t rely on smell to judge safety [8].
For ABS, ASA, nylon and PC be doubly careful.

What we don’t know

For PC, TPU, filled filaments (CF/GF), PC-ABS and many commercial blends public data are scarce or conflicting. Check the manufacturer’s safety data sheets (SDS). For professional use follow your country’s workplace rules. This page is not medical advice.
Many studies use different printers and conditions: numbers can’t be compared across studies.